The Sacraments

Traces the etymology and patristic/scholastic history of the term 'sacrament' (sacramentum — sacred sign; mysteria). Gives the classical Augustinian definition (sacred sign) and the medieval refinement culminating in Peter Lombard's definition. Provides the formal Scholastic definition: an outward sign of inward grace, instituted by Christ, conferring the grace it signifies. Distinguishes sacraments from sacramentals, the scriptural 'mysteries', and Old Testament rites.

Proves the Real Presence from three scriptural loci: (1) the Promise at Capernaum (John 6:26–72) — Christ's bread-of-life discourse; the literal sense demanded by the context and the audience's reaction; refutes the figurative interpretation. (2) The Institution narratives (Matt. 26; Mark 14; Luke 22; 1 Cor. 11) — 'This is my body'; the demonstrative pronoun; the words of consecration taken literally; parallel with the words of the Last Supper. (3) The Pauline teaching (1 Cor. 10:16–17; 11:27–29) — 'guilty of the body and blood of the Lord'; eating and drinking unworthily.

Proves from Scripture that Christ gave the Church the power to forgive sins. Article 1: The Promise (Matt. 16:19; 18:18) — the power of the keys given to Peter and the Apostles; the analogy of binding and loosing; the permanent institution. Article 2: The Grant (John 20:22–23) — 'Whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven; whose sins you shall retain, they are retained'; the judicial character of the grant (remitting or retaining implies a judgment); this power is distinct from the power to baptise; it was given as a permanent institution to the Church.

Proves the divine institution of Extreme Unction against Protestant denial — de fide (Trent, Sess. XIV, can. 1). Proves from James 5:14–15 (the primary locus classicus): the text prescribes anointing by priests of the Church with oil in the name of the Lord, with prayer, for healing of body and forgiveness of sins; demonstrates that all essential characteristics of a sacrament are present. Proves from Tradition: the unanimous Patristic witness; the practice in the Greek, Latin, and Eastern Churches; the explicit definitions of Trent.

Distinguishes sacraments across four historical states: (1) pre-Mosaic (circumcision, etc.), (2) Mosaic Law (Old Testament rites), (3) the period between the Passion and institution of the New Law, (4) the New Testament sacraments. Compares the sacraments of the Old and New Law — the latter truly confer grace ex opere operato, whereas the former did not. Treats the distinction between sacraments of the living and sacraments of the dead.

Proves the Real Presence from the unanimous Tradition of the Church — 'more conclusively than any other dogma'. Marshals evidence from: (1) the official liturgy of East and West; (2) the early Fathers (Ignatius of Antioch, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Cyprian, Cyril of Jerusalem, Ambrose, Augustine, John Damascene); (3) the explicit conciliar definitions. Refutes the Protestant claim that the Fathers were using figurative language. Treats the Berengarian controversy (11th century) and the formal definition at Trent.

Article 1: Protestant errors and the Church's definition — Luther denied that the Church has power to forgive sins; Trent defines the power of absolution de fide (Sess. XIV, can. 3). Article 2: The Patristic teaching — marshals evidence from Tertullian, Origen, Cyprian, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and John Damascene; the ancient practice of canonical penance; the discipline of the arcane; the exomologesis; reconciliation by laying on of hands.

Treats the matter and form of Extreme Unction. Remote matter: olive oil blessed by a bishop (de fide — Council of Florence). Proximate matter: the anointing of the five senses (eyes, ears, nose, mouth, hands) — the number and the manner of anointing. Form: the deprecatory or indicative formula accompanying each anointing — de fide (Council of Florence; Trent). Treats the question of which formula is essential; the Eastern and Latin rites compared; what constitutes a substantial change.

Proves the exact number of seven sacraments against Protestant reduction (Luther: two; Calvin: one) — de fide (Trent, Sess. VII, can. 1). Proves the number from Scripture and Tradition. Treats the enumeration: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Holy Orders, Matrimony. Explains the analogical correspondence between the seven sacraments and the seven stages of natural life (Augustine Bea's schema). Treats sacramental character.

Proves that Christ is present in the Eucharist whole and entire (totus Christus) — body, blood, soul, and divinity — under each species and in every part of each species. De fide (Trent, Sess. XIII, can. 3). Proves: (1) the whole Christ is present under the species of bread alone, and under the species of wine alone; (2) the whole Christ is present in every particle of either species; (3) soul and divinity are present by real concomitance (vi concomitantiae). Treats the practical corollary: communion under one kind gives the whole Christ.

Three sections treat the extent and nature of the forgiveness power. §1 Unlimited: refutes Montanism and Novatianism (which held that certain sins — apostasy, adultery, murder — are beyond the Church's power to forgive); de fide (Fourth Lateran; Trent) that no sin is absolutely irremissible in this life. §2 Necessary: the power of forgiveness is not merely advisory or declaratory but truly effective; the priest truly forgives — not merely declares forgiven. §3 Judicial: penance is a judicial act (a true court, with judge, prosecutor, witness, and defendant in the person of the penitent) — de fide (Trent, Sess. XIV, can. 9).

Treats the effects of Extreme Unction: (1) an increase of sanctifying grace; (2) the special sacramental grace — strength and peace against fear of death, temptations of the devil, and the weakness of the flesh; (3) remission of venial sins (de fide — Trent, Sess. XIV); (4) remission of mortal sins if the recipient is unable to make a proper confession; (5) restoration of bodily health, if expedient for salvation — de fide (James 5:15). Treats the question of whether this sacrament imprints a character.

Treats the first essential constituent of a sacrament: the visible sensible sign. Applies the hylomorphic analysis (Aquinas): remote matter (the physical element, e.g., water), proximate matter (the use of the element, e.g., ablution), and form (the words). Proves the necessity of both matter and form for validity. Treats the degree of precision required in the form; what constitutes 'substantial change' invalidating the sacrament; the relation of intention to matter and form.

Treats Transubstantiation — the unique mode by which the Real Presence comes to be. §1 defines Transubstantiation precisely: the conversion of the whole substance of bread into the Body of Christ and of the whole substance of wine into His Blood, with only the accidents (species) of bread and wine remaining — de fide (Lateran IV; Trent, Sess. XIII, can. 2). §2 proves Transubstantiation from Scripture (the Institution narratives; the verb 'is' not 'signifies') and Tradition (the term itself; the Fathers' language of conversion). Refutes Lutheranism (consubstantiation), Calvinism (figurism), and various modern diminutions.

Part II proves Penance is a true sacrament. Introduction: de fide (Trent, Sess. XIV, can. 1) — Penance is the second plank after shipwreck. Chapter I: §1 The Matter — the three acts of the penitent (contrition, confession, satisfaction) are the quasi-matter; the absolution is the form; explains why Penance has quasi-matter rather than material matter. §2 The Form — the words of absolution ('I absolve thee...'); the indicative vs. deprecatory form; the Eastern deprecatory formula; whether the formula can be abbreviated; what constitutes a substantial change invalidating the sacrament.

Chapter II: Necessity — Extreme Unction is not necessary as a means of salvation but obligatory by grave precept when danger of death from sickness is present; neither the sick person nor the priest may rashly omit it. Chapter III: The Minister — only a bishop or priest may validly administer Extreme Unction — de fide (Trent, Sess. XIV, can. 4); treats the question of whether several priests may anoint simultaneously. Chapter IV: The Recipient — must be baptised; must have reached the use of reason; must be in danger of death from sickness (not from external violence); may receive the sacrament even if unconscious, provided they would have requested it.

Treats the second essential constituent: interior grace. Distinguishes the grace common to all sacraments (sanctifying grace) from the gratia sacramentalis (specific grace proper to each sacrament). Treats the sacramental character (Baptism, Confirmation, Orders) — its nature (an ontological quality; a spiritual power; a participation in Christ's priesthood), its permanence, and its re-impressibility. Treats the res et sacramentum (the intermediate effect) and the res tantum (the ultimate effect — grace).

Chapter IV treats two corollaries of the Real Presence. §1 Permanence: Christ is present in the Eucharist as long as the species remain intact — de fide (Trent, Sess. XIII, can. 4); this grounds the practice of reservation and adoration outside Mass. Refutes errors that deny permanence (Calvin; some early writers). §2 Adorableness: the Eucharistic Christ is to be adored with the worship of latria — de fide (Trent, Sess. XIII, can. 6). The Feast of Corpus Christi, Benediction, processions, and perpetual adoration are vindicated.

Treats the effects of the Sacrament of Penance: (1) remission of mortal sins (de fide — Trent, Sess. XIV); (2) remission of venial sins; (3) partial remission of temporal punishment (the remainder to be expiated by satisfaction or purgatory); (4) restoration of sanctifying grace and the virtues; (5) the reviviscence of merits lost by mortal sin (virtutes mortuae reviviscunt). Treats the 'resurrection of sins' question (whether forgiven sins are in any sense restored if the penitent relapses). Treats the notorious question of imperfect absolution (incomplete remission due to the disposition of the penitent).

Treats the third essential constituent: divine institution. Proves that all seven sacraments were instituted by Christ alone — de fide (Trent, Sess. VII, can. 1). Refutes the opinion that some were instituted by the Apostles or the Church. Distinguishes immediate institution (Christ himself specified all elements) from mediate institution (Christ determined the substance, left the accidents to the Church). Treats the time of institution of each sacrament.

Chapter V addresses three apparent contradictions in the doctrine of the Real Presence and resolves them speculatively. §1: The continued existence of the Eucharistic species without their proper subject (substance) — the accidents of bread and wine persist without inhering in any substance; Scholastic analysis of accidental being and the unique divine sustentation of the species. §2: The spirit-like mode of Christ's Eucharistic Body — Christ is present after the manner of a spirit, not occupying space circumscriptively; dimensive quantity does not involve locality in the same way for Christ. §3: The simultaneous presence of Christ in heaven and in many places — multilocation; not contradictory since Christ's Eucharistic presence is sacramental, not local.

Chapter III: The Minister — Penance requires a validly ordained priest with jurisdiction (de fide — Trent, Sess. XIV, can. 10); the bishop grants jurisdiction (ordinary or delegated); reserved sins and reserved censures; the confessor's obligation of the seal (sigillum confessionis) — de fide (Trent, Sess. XXV). Chapter IV: The Recipient — must be baptised; adults must have at least attrition (imperfect contrition); the question of whether a penitent who lacks sufficient contrition receives any grace; the revocation of absolution for hidden impediments.

Proves Holy Orders is a true sacrament — de fide (Trent, Sess. XXIII, can. 3). Proves divine institution from Scripture (John 20:22–23; Luke 22:19; Acts 6:6; 13:3; 1 Tim. 4:14; 2 Tim. 1:6; Heb. 5:4) and Tradition — the universal practice of ordination with imposition of hands; the Patristic evidence; the explicit definitions of Trent. Treats the Reformation denial (Luther's universal priesthood of all believers) and its refutation.

The central sacramental controversy: proves that the sacraments confer grace ex opere operato (by the very act performed) and not merely ex opere operantis (by the merits of the minister or recipient) — de fide (Trent, Sess. VII, can. 8). Refutes the Protestant position (sacraments are merely signs of faith; grace depends on the faith of the recipient). Proves the Catholic doctrine from Scripture, Tradition, and theological reasoning. Treats the obstacles to grace (obex) that can prevent the sacrament's effect even when validly received.

Part II treats the Eucharist formally as a sacrament. Chapter I: §1 The Matter — wheat bread and grape wine are the remote matter (de fide); treats the question of mixed wine, the Greek rite's use of leavened bread, and the Eastern question of water in the chalice. §2 The Form — the words of Consecration ('This is my Body'; 'This is the chalice of my Blood...') constitute the essential form; their precise minimal content is defined; treats the question of whether the relative clause is essential; the minister's intention.

Part III treats the three acts of the penitent. Chapter I §1: Perfect Contrition — defined as sorrow for sin arising primarily from love of God (dolor de peccatis ex amore Dei). Proves: (1) perfect contrition remits mortal sin outside the sacrament (de fide — Trent, Sess. XIV, can. 4), provided the desire for the sacrament is included; (2) its supernatural character (must be elicited under the influence of grace); (3) its universality (must extend to all mortal sins); (4) its supremacy (sorrow must be the highest practical sorrow). Treats the heroic act of contrition and the psychology of the act of love.

Treats the much-disputed matter and form of Holy Orders. The historical controversy: the Council of Florence identified the traditio instrumentorum (handing of the chalice and paten to the priest) as the matter; the Scholastic debate over whether the imposition of hands suffices. Pius XII definitively settled the question in 1947 (Sacramentum Ordinis): the imposition of hands is the matter and the consecratory prayer is the form for all three major orders. Treats the validity of Anglican orders (Leo XIII, Apostolicae Curae, 1896: absolutely null and void).

The great Scholastic controversy on the mode of sacramental causality: are the sacraments physical instrumental causes of grace (Thomist position), or merely moral causes (Scotist/Suarezian position)? Pohle presents both positions, their arguments and objections, and assesses the Thomist view as more probable. Treats the notion of instrumental causality; why a physical instrument can produce an effect beyond its own power; the analogy of the pen and the writer.

Treats the four principal effects of Holy Communion. §1 First effect: mystical union of the soul with Christ by love (John 6:56 — 'He who eats my flesh abides in me and I in him'). §2 Second effect: increase of sanctifying grace (the Eucharist is a sacrament of the living, increasing the grace already present). §3 Third effect: blotting out of venial sins and preservation from mortal sin. §4 Fourth effect: the pledge of bodily resurrection and eternal life (John 6:54 — 'He who eats my flesh will have eternal life and I will raise him up on the last day').

§2 treats attrition (imperfect contrition — sorrow arising from fear of punishment or the turpitude of sin, not from love of God). Article 1: Attrition defined — its motives; the requirement that it be supernatural; the Council of Trent's definition (Sess. XIV, can. 5) that attrition alone suffices with the sacrament; refutes the Jansenist demand for perfect contrition even within the sacrament. Article 2: The theological sufficiency of attrition — the long controversy between Contritionists and Attritionists; the probable opinion that attrition including some initial love of God (attritio cum dilectione inchoata) is sufficient; the resolution by post-Tridentine theologians.

Treats the effects of Holy Orders: (1) an increase of sanctifying grace; (2) the special sacramental grace of Holy Orders — assistance for the duties of the priesthood; (3) the sacramental character — a permanent spiritual power configuring the ordained to Christ the Priest (de fide — Trent, Sess. XXIII, can. 4); its indelibility (hence ordination cannot be repeated). Treats the question of deposition or laicization — the character remains but the exercise of orders is forbidden.

Treats the conditions required for the valid administration of a sacrament by the minister: (1) the right matter and form; (2) the requisite intention — the minister must intend at least to do what the Church does (de fide — Trent, Sess. VII, can. 11); (3) the required order (for sacraments needing ordination). Treats the famous controversy about the intention of heretical or unbelieving ministers; schismatic ministers; simulation; habitual vs. actual vs. virtual intention.

Chapter III: §1 Necessity of the Eucharist for salvation — necessary by precept (de fide — John 6:53; Trent), not as a means; adults are obliged to receive at least once a year (Lateran IV). §2 Communion under one kind — the laity may receive under one kind only; this gives the whole Christ; de fide (Trent, Sess. XXI). Chapter IV: §1 The minister of consecration — only a validly ordained priest can consecrate (de fide — Trent, Sess. XXIII). §2 The minister of distribution. Chapter V: The recipient — §1 valid reception (baptism required); §2 subjective worthiness (state of grace; Eucharistic fast; the preparation of confession for those in mortal sin).

Chapter II treats auricular confession. Opening: defines confession (sorrowful declaration of sins to a priest with a view to obtaining absolution — de fide — Trent, Sess. XIV, can. 6, 7). §1 Proved from Scripture: the judicial character of forgiveness requires that the judge know the case; the texts (John 20:23; Matt. 16:19; James 5:16); the institution of auricular confession by Christ — de fide. §2 Proved from Tradition: Article 1: Heretical errors (Wyclif, Luther, Calvin) vs. Trent; the ancient practice of exomologesis (public and private); Article 2: Patristic evidence — Origen, Cyprian, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Leo, John Damascene; the gradual shift from public to private confession. Treats the properties of a good confession: integrity (all mortal sins by species and number), sincerity.

Treats the eight orders and their sacramental status. §1 The Episcopate: bishops are superior to priests by divine institution (de fide — Trent, Sess. XXIII, can. 7); the bishop's power of ordination; whether the episcopate is a distinct sacramental order or only a degree of the priesthood (sententia communis: a distinct order). §2 The Priesthood: a distinct and superior order; the priest's power of consecration and absolution. §3 The Diaconate: the power to distribute the Eucharist, to baptise, and to preach; its apostolic institution. §4 The Subdiaconate and Four Minor Orders: not sacramental (sententia communis since Trent); their institution by the Church; the minor orders (porter, lector, exorcist, acolyte).

Chapter IV §2: The requisites of worthy administration — the minister in mortal sin acts validly but sins gravely by administering a sacrament; the faithful should not knowingly request sacraments from a minister in mortal sin. Chapter V: The recipient of a sacrament. §1: Requisites of valid reception — the recipient must be capable (baptised for most sacraments; adult sacraments require the use of reason); the required intention in adults. §2: Requisites of worthy reception — the state of grace; specific preparation for each sacrament.

Part III opens the treatise on the Mass. Chapter I §1 establishes the concept of sacrifice: Article 1 defines true sacrifice (external offering of a sensible good, by a legitimately appointed minister, to God alone, involving real destruction or transformation of the gift, as an acknowledgment of God's supreme dominion); distinguishes it from figurative sacrifice, from impetration, and from other acts of religion. Article 2 divides sacrifices (bloody/unbloody; propitiatory/eucharistic/impetratory/satisfactory) and establishes the criteria for a true sacrifice.

Chapter III §1 treats the penance enjoined by the confessor (sacramental satisfaction). Proves that satisfaction is an integral part of the sacrament — de fide (Trent, Sess. XIV, can. 8). Defines satisfaction: the voluntary endurance of a penalty imposed by the confessor to repair the offence against God and expiate temporal punishment. Treats: (1) the medicinal and penal purposes of penance; (2) what works are suitable as penances; (3) whether the confessor can omit satisfaction; (4) the penitent's obligation to perform the penance; (5) the efficacy of satisfaction in remitting temporal punishment.

Chapter III: The Minister — the bishop is the ordinary minister of all orders (de fide — Trent, Sess. XXIII, can. 7); treats disputed questions of papal delegation for simple priests to ordain. Chapter IV: The Recipient — only a baptised male can validly receive orders (de fide); the required intention; age requirements; the impediments to ordination (irregularities ex defectu and ex delicto). §2 Clerical Celibacy — the obligation of celibacy for the Latin rite; its basis in divine fittingness and ecclesiastical law; its history; the Eastern discipline of married clergy; the theological arguments for and against compulsory celibacy.

Part II opens with Baptism as a true sacrament instituted by Christ. §1 proves the divine institution of Baptism from Scripture (Matt. 28:19 — the Great Commission; John 3:5 — 'unless a man be born again of water and the Holy Ghost'; Mark 16:16) and Tradition — de fide (Trent, Sess. VII). Distinguishes the solemn institution of Christian Baptism from John's baptism (preparatory; did not confer grace) and the pre-baptismal washing of the disciples.

§2 proves the Mass is a true sacrifice — de fide (Trent, Sess. XXII, can. 1). From Scripture: (1) the Melchisedech prophecy (Ps. 109:4 + Gen. 14:18–20) — Christ is a priest 'according to the order of Melchisedech', whose sacrifice was bread and wine; (2) the Malachi prophecy (Mal. 1:11 — 'In every place there is offered to my name a clean oblation'); (3) the Last Supper as the institution of a sacrifice (1 Cor. 11:26 — 'You proclaim the Lord's death until he comes'). From Tradition: the unanimous teaching of the Fathers that the Mass is a true sacrifice; the ancient liturgies; the formal condemnation of Protestant denial by Trent.

§2 treats indulgences as a means of remitting temporal punishment remaining after absolution. Article 1: Definition — an indulgence is the remission of temporal punishment due to sin already forgiven, granted by the Church from the Treasury of the Church (the merits of Christ and the saints) outside the sacrament — de fide (Trent, Sess. XXV); distinguishes plenary from partial indulgences; indulgences are not absolutions or permissions to sin. Article 2: Proof and history — Scripture basis (the power of the keys); Patristic practice (the libelli of the martyrs; penitential commutations); the historical development through Crusade indulgences to the Jubilee of 1300; Luther's abuse and Trent's correction. Article 3: Indulgences for the dead — the Church grants indulgences applicable to the poor souls in purgatory per modum suffragii; de fide that such indulgences are applicable; their efficacy depends on God's acceptance.

§2 treats the matter and form of Baptism. Remote matter: natural water (de fide — Trent; not wine, milk, or other liquids). Proximate matter: the ablution — three modes (immersion, infusion, aspersion); immersion was ancient practice but all three are valid. Form: the Trinitarian formula ('I baptise thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost') — de fide; the validity of baptism 'in the name of Jesus' (the 'Unitarian' formula controversy is treated). The minister must apply the water and pronounce the form simultaneously.

Chapter II treats the nature (essence) of the Mass. §1 Physical essence: Article 1 establishes the Mass in its relation to the Sacrifice of the Cross — the Mass is essentially one sacrifice with Calvary (same priest, same victim), differing only in the mode of offering (unbloody vs. bloody); de fide (Trent, Sess. XXII). The Mass is not a new sacrifice but the perpetual representation of Calvary. Article 2 identifies the real sacrificial act of the Mass — the double Consecration (the separate consecration of Body and Blood mystically reproducing the separation of blood from the body at death); treats the competing opinions (Cajetan, Bellarmine, Lessius, De Lugo) on what constitutes the sacrificial act.

Proves that Christian marriage is a true sacrament — de fide (Trent, Sess. XXIV, can. 1). The key principle: for baptised Christians the contract and the sacrament are inseparable; there is no valid marriage between Christians that is not also a sacrament (de fide — implication of Trent). Proves from Scripture (Eph. 5:22–32 — 'this is a great mystery'; the nuptial blessing at Cana) and Tradition (the Fathers on the sacred character of Christian marriage). Treats the question of whether unbaptised persons can contract a true sacramental marriage.

§3 treats the effects of Baptism: (1) remission of all sin — original and actual, mortal and venial — de fide (Trent, Sess. V, can. 1; Sess. VI, can. 5); (2) remission of all temporal punishment due to sin; (3) infusion of sanctifying grace and the virtues; (4) the baptismal character; (5) incorporation into the Church. Treats the effect on concupiscence (diminished but not destroyed). Also treats baptism of desire and baptism of blood.

§2 treats the metaphysical essence of the Mass — what makes it formally a sacrifice. Article 1 surveys and rejects inadequate theories: Vasquez (the oblation alone, without destruction, suffices), Suarez (the sacramental state of Christ is the immolation), and their objections. Article 2 presents acceptable theories: Billot (the sacrificial act is Christ's real presence under the sacramental species, which are signs of death); Lessius (the mystical separation of Body and Blood in the double consecration); De Lugo (the degradation of Christ to the sacramental state constitutes the immolation). Pohle assesses and selects the most defensible position.

Treats the disputed matter and form of Matrimony. The key principle: the contracting parties are the ministers of the sacrament to each other (de fide — Council of Florence; Catechism of the Council of Trent). Three theories: (1) the physical consummation as matter (rejected); (2) the giving and receiving of marital rights as matter and form respectively (Melchior Cano; Vasquez — most common); (3) the priestly blessing as form (Morin; minority opinion). Treats the role of the priest as official witness, not minister. Treats clandestine marriages and the Tridentine decree Tametsi.

Proves Baptism is necessary for salvation as a means (necessitate medii) — de fide (John 3:5; Trent, Sess. VI, can. 4). Treats the threefold Baptism: of water (sacramental), of desire (baptismus flaminis — sufficient when the sacrament is impossible), and of blood (martyrdom). Treats the difficult question of unbaptised infants: limbo, the arguments for and against, and the Church's current theological understanding. Treats the case of catechumens who die before Baptism.

Chapter III treats the causality of the Mass. §1 Effects: the Mass produces four effects — latreutic (worship of God), eucharistic (thanksgiving), propitiatory (atonement for sin — de fide, Trent, Sess. XXII, can. 3), and impetratory (petition); treats the question of whether the Mass also produces ex opere operato effects for the faithful beyond the celebrant. §2 Mode of operation: how the Mass produces its effects — the distinction between the sacrificial efficacy of the Mass (finite and limited, not equal to Calvary in this respect) and its objective value (infinite, as an act of the God-man); for whom the Mass is offered; the intentions of the celebrant; the applicability of Masses for the dead.

Treats the effects of the Sacrament of Matrimony: (1) an increase of sanctifying grace (de fide — Trent, Sess. XXIV); (2) the special sacramental grace of Matrimony — assistance to fulfill the duties of the married state, to bear its burdens, to sanctify each other, and to educate children in the faith; (3) whether Matrimony imprints a character — no, since it can be repeated (unlike Baptism, Confirmation, and Orders). Treats the res et sacramentum of Matrimony (the indissoluble bond — vinculum) and the res tantum (sanctifying grace).

Chapter III: The Minister of Baptism. §1: Ordinary minister of solemn Baptism is the bishop or priest; the deacon is an extraordinary minister. §2: In necessity, any person (male or female, baptised or unbaptised) can baptise validly. Chapter IV: The Recipient of Baptism. §1: Requisites of valid reception — any unbaptised human being can be baptised. §2: Infant Baptism — validity (de fide — Trent, Sess. VII, can. 13); the practice is apostolic; infants have no obstacle (obex); treats the question of the children of unbelievers.

Proves the unity of marriage (monogamy) — one husband and one wife — as a property of Christian marriage. De fide (Trent, Sess. XXIV, can. 2) that polygamy is condemned. Proves from natural law (procreation and education of children require one committed union); from Scripture (Matt. 19:4–6; 1 Cor. 7:2; 1 Tim. 3:2); from Tradition. Treats the Old Testament polygamy of the Patriarchs — a legitimate divine dispensation from the secondary precept of the natural law, not from the primary precept. Treats the distinction between polygyny (one husband, many wives) and polyandry (one wife, many husbands — intrinsically unlawful).

Part III opens with the proof that Confirmation is a true sacrament instituted by Christ. §1 proves the divine institution against Protestant denial — de fide (Trent, Sess. VII, can. 1). Traces the Scriptural foundation (Acts 8:14–17; Acts 19:1–6; Heb. 6:2), the apostolic laying on of hands, and the Patristic evidence. Treats the question of when Christ precisely instituted Confirmation (probably implicitly, with the full institution manifested at Pentecost).

Proves the absolute intrinsic indissolubility of a valid, consummated Christian marriage — de fide (Trent, Sess. XXIV, can. 7). Proves from Scripture (Matt. 19:6 — 'what God has joined let no man put asunder'; Matt. 5:32; 1 Cor. 7:10–11) and Tradition (the unanimous Patristic teaching; the consistent practice of the Church in refusing to grant remarriage after divorce). Treats the Greek Church's toleration of divorce as a pastoral accommodation not approved by the Catholic Church. Treats divorce and remarriage in civil law — the State has no authority over the sacramental bond.

§2 treats the matter and form of Confirmation. Remote matter: sacred chrism (oil of olives mixed with balm, blessed by a bishop) — the use of chrism is certain; whether it is essential or only a ceremony is disputed. Proximate matter: the anointing on the forehead in the form of a cross. Form: 'I sign thee with the sign of the Cross, and I confirm thee with the chrism of salvation, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost.' §3 treats the effects: an increase of sanctifying grace; the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost; the confirmational character; strengthening for the spiritual combat.

Treats the exceptional cases where a marriage bond can be dissolved. (1) The Pauline Privilege (1 Cor. 7:15): a marriage between two unbaptised persons can be dissolved in favour of the faith when one converts and the other departs or creates an obstacle to the faith — de fide. (2) Non-consummated marriages: a valid but unconsummated marriage between baptised persons can be dissolved by papal dispensation or by the solemn religious vows of one party — sententia communis. (3) The question of whether any other cases permit dissolution is treated. Distinguishes dissolution from annulment (declaration of invalidity ab initio).

Chapter II: The Obligation of Receiving Confirmation — not necessary as a means of salvation but obligatory as a precept; grave neglect is sinful. Chapter III: The Minister of Confirmation — the bishop is the ordinary minister (de fide — Trent, Sess. VII, can. 3); simple priests may be delegated by the Pope (disputed historically; now common practice in the Eastern rite). Treats the laying on of hands and the anointing as distinct acts. Chapter IV: The Recipient of Confirmation — must be baptised; any age after Baptism is sufficient for validity; the age of reason (about seven) is required for liceity; the sponsor requirement.

Chapter III: The Minister — the contracting parties minister the sacrament to each other (de fide — Council of Florence; Catechism of Trent); the priest acts as the Church's official witness; treats marriage by proxy and the canonical form (Tametsi). Chapter IV: The Recipient — both parties must be baptised for a sacramental marriage; treats the requisites of valid reception — freedom from diriment impediments, proper canonical form, genuine matrimonial consent (freedom from grave fear, error as to person, and simulation).

Chapter V treats the Church's exclusive jurisdiction over Christian marriage. §1 The Church has control over the sacrament of marriage — de fide; the State has jurisdiction only over the civil effects. §2 The Church's authority is of divine right and independent of the State — de fide (Trent, Sess. XXIV); refutes the Josephinist and Gallican claims for state supremacy. §3 The Church's exclusive right to establish diriment impediments — de fide (Trent, Sess. XXIV, can. 4); enumerates the fifteen classical diriment impediments (encoded in the hexameter: Error, conditio, votum, cognatio...); distinguishes natural-law impediments (from which even the Pope cannot dispense) from ecclesiastical impediments (dispensable); treats the sanatio in radice.