The Sacraments in General, Baptism, and Confirmation

Traces the etymology and patristic/scholastic history of the term "sacrament" (sacramentum — sacred sign; mysteria). Gives the classical Augustinian definition and the medieval refinement culminating in Peter Lombard's definition. Provides the formal Scholastic definition: an outward sign of inward grace, instituted by Christ, conferring the grace it signifies. Distinguishes sacraments from sacramentals, the scriptural "mysteries," and Old Testament rites.

Distinguishes sacraments across four historical states: (1) pre-Mosaic (the quasi-sacraments of Paradise and the Sacrament of Nature, culminating in circumcision), (2) the Mosaic Law, (3) the period between the Passion and the institution of the New Law, (4) the New Testament sacraments. Compares the sacraments of the Old and New Law — the latter truly confer grace ex opere operato, whereas the former did not.

Proves the exact number of seven sacraments against Protestant reduction (Luther: three, then two; Calvin: two) — de fide (Trent, Sess. VII, can. 1). Proves the number from Scripture, from the theological argument of universal belief, and from the historical argument tracing the septenary number back through the Greek schism to the Nestorians and Monophysites. Explains the analogical correspondence between the seven sacraments and the seven stages of natural life, and treats the patristic silence on the exact number.

Establishes that every Sacrament of the New Law consists of two elements — an indeterminate 'thing' (res) and a determining 'word' (verbum) — following the Decretum pro Armenis of the Council of Florence. Shows that these correspond to the Aristotelian categories of matter and form, a usage sanctioned by Trent, and defends the universality of this composition against Scotus's exception for the Holy Eucharist.

Treats the effects of the Sacraments: that all seven confer sanctifying grace ex opere operato (de fide), that each additionally confers a special sacramental grace proper to its object, and that the measure of grace depends on the recipient's disposition. Then treats the sacramental character imprinted by Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders alone — its existence (de fide, Florence and Trent), its nature as a supernatural quality classed among the second species, and its threefold object as a distinctive, obligatory, and configurative sign conforming the recipient to Christ's priestly office.

Establishes that Christ is the author of all seven Sacraments in a threefold sense: as their meritorious cause through His Passion (de fide), as their immediate personal institutor rather than through the Apostles or the Church (propositio certa), and as the one who fixed their matter and form so that the Church cannot alter their substance. Concludes with the distinction between Sacraments and sacramentals, and the Church's legitimate power over the latter.

Refutes the Protestant reduction of the Sacraments to mere exhortations or pledges (Luther, Calvin, Zwingli) and demonstrates the de fide Tridentine teaching that the Sacraments truly and objectively confer the grace they signify ex opere operato, independently of the merits of minister or recipient, though presupposing that the recipient place no obstacle. Proves this from Scripture, the Fathers, the practice of infant Baptism, and the absurd consequences of the Lutheran system; explains the history and precise meaning of the formula ex opere operato; and shows that the sacramental form is truly consecratory rather than merely exhortatory.

Examines the free theological question of how the Sacraments produce grace ex opere operato: as physical causes or as moral causes. Establishes as common teaching that the Sacraments are at least true moral causes, moving God to bestow grace by virtue of their intrinsic connection to the merits of Christ's Passion and to Christ as principal minister, and argues as the more probable opinion that they are not physical causes, given the impossibility of the whole sign co-existing and the fact of the revival of sacraments conferred on unworthy recipients.

Treats the minister of the Sacraments: who may validly administer them (a living person of sound reason, duly qualified except for Baptism and Matrimony, distinct from the recipient); that validity depends neither on the minister's personal worthiness (against the Donatists) nor, for most Sacraments, on his orthodox belief (against exceptions for Penance); and that a right intention — at least to do what the Church does — is a necessary and sufficient condition, refuting Ambrosius Catharinus's theory that a merely external intention would suffice.

Concludes Part I with the moral requisites of worthy administration (the minister's own state of grace, his duty to administer and, at times, to refuse the Sacraments) and the full doctrine of the recipient: who is capable of receiving the Sacraments; that orthodoxy is not required for valid reception (except Penance); the reviviscence of Sacraments received unworthily but validly, differing by Sacrament; the right intention required of the recipient; and the distinct requisites of worthy reception for the Sacraments of the dead (attrition) versus the Sacraments of the living (the state of grace).

Opens the treatise on Baptism with its definition as the Sacrament of regeneration by water in the word. Proves the divine institution of Baptism from Old Testament types, the words of Christ to Nicodemus, and the baptismal commission of Matthew 28:19, against Harnack's denial. Reviews the disputed question of exactly when Christ instituted Baptism — at His own Baptism in the Jordan, or only at the Ascension — concluding with St. Bonaventure's synthesis distinguishing its matter, form, effects, and final purpose.

Establishes natural water as the remote matter of Baptism (against Socinian and Lutheran laxity), true ablution as its proximate matter (by immersion, effusion, or aspersion, all valid), and the Trinitarian formula as its form. Traces the history of baptismal practice from immersion to effusion, examines the validity of Baptism 'in the name of Jesus' recorded in Acts, and catalogues which alterations of the formula are certainly invalid, certainly valid, or doubtful.

Details the three effects of Baptism: the grace of justification, remitting original sin and infusing sanctifying grace together with the theological virtues and the gifts of the Holy Ghost (distinguishing it from John's merely preparatory baptism); the remission of all temporal and eternal punishment due to sin, such that one dying immediately after Baptism would go straight to Heaven; and the indelible baptismal character, which incorporates the recipient into Christ and into the Church as a distinctive, obligatory sign.

Establishes that Baptism is necessary for salvation as both a necessity of means and, for adults, of precept — proved from Christ's mandate, John 3:5, and the ancient catechumenate. Explains how, in cases of urgent necessity, Baptism of water can be supplied for adults by the Baptism of desire (perfect contrition together with at least an implicit votum sacramenti) or by the Baptism of blood, i.e. martyrdom, which is shown from Scripture and the Fathers to justify even the unbaptized and, in some respects, to exceed Baptism by water.

Opens the treatise on Confirmation, the Sacrament of the fullness of the Holy Ghost, defined by Trent against the Protestant reformers as a true and proper Sacrament distinct from Baptism. Proves its divine institution from the promise and outpouring of the Holy Ghost at Pentecost, from Acts 8 (the imposition of hands by Peter and John on the already-baptized Samaritans), and from the unbroken testimony of the Latin and Greek Fathers — Tertullian, St. Cyprian, Pope Innocent I, St. Cyril of Jerusalem, and others.

Surveys the four theological opinions on the matter of Confirmation (imposition of hands alone, chrism alone, both conjointly, or either) and concludes for the conjoint opinion; treats chrism as the remote matter and the disputed questions of balsam and episcopal consecration; and settles the form as the words spoken at the anointing rather than the general imposition-of-hands prayer. Then explains the twofold effect of Confirmation — an increase of sanctifying grace bestowing the fortitude of the Holy Ghost, and a sacramental character distinct from that of Baptism, configuring the recipient as a soldier of Christ.

Concludes Volume VIII. Confirmation is not necessary as a means of salvation but is necessary by precept, and neglecting it without cause is a grave matter. Its ordinary minister is the bishop alone, de fide, though in extraordinary cases a simple priest can validly confirm with special papal delegation. The recipient must have been baptized, must not have been confirmed before, since the character is indelible, and should be in the state of grace with at least a rudimentary knowledge of the faith. Closes the treatise on Baptism and Confirmation with the full bibliography Pohle appended to the volume.